COLLEGE STUDENTS’ DIFFERENTIAL PERCEPTIONS OF UNDERGRADUATES WHO SMOKE CIGARETTES AND THOSE WHO DON’T SMOKE CIGARETTES

John Paul Venuti, Matthew Conroy, Paige Bucy, Pamela L. Landis, & Catherine Chambliss
Ursinus College

        Recent research has documented an increasing rate of smoking among today’s college students.  Despite the increased use of cigarettes among students, there is evidence to suggest that anti-smoking norms still predominate among both students and faculty.  This study compared attitudes toward hypothetical students who smoked cigarettes and those who did not, in order to assess the differential perceptions of smokers and nonsmokers.
        Those people who do smoke often encounter negative social reactions.  Research has shown that nonsmokers tend to attribute negative characteristics to smokers.  Nonsmokers perceive smokers less favorably than other nonsmokers on a number of characteristics, including intelligence, sophistication, consideration, health, and maturity (Gibson, 1997).
The present study was conducted in an attempt to uncover college students’ psychological reactions to smoking restrictions, revolving around a possible perceived threat to their freedom.  It also addressed the negative stereotypes associated with smokers.  This cross-cultural study was conducted by obtaining a sample of U.S. undergraduates through an introductory psychology course at a small liberal arts college located in Pennsylvania, and a sample of Australian undergraduates at a university.  A total of 222 students participated.  A survey was distributed, addressing students’ perceived attributes of smokers and nonsmokers.
        The findings of this study corroborate those of other researchers who have found that perceptions of smokers are generally more negative than perceptions of nonsmokers.  Nonsmokers were more likely to be viewed as conscientious, ambitious, and as having good judgment.  Smokers were seen as less intelligent and more hostile than nonsmokers, except by other smokers.  The observed tendency for smokers to think of other smokers as independent and artistically creative may contribute to their own decision to engage in smoking behavior.

THE RELATIVE STIGMA ASSOCIATED WITH SMOKING, OBESITY, AND CRIMINALITY

John Paul Venuti, Matthew Conroy, Paige Bucy, Pamela L. Landis, & Catherine Chambliss
Ursinus College

         Despite the increased use of cigarettes among college students, there is evidence to suggest that anti-smoking norms still predominate among both students and faculty.  In order to assess the prejudice against college students who smoke, relative to that associated with membership in other disparaged groups, college students were asked to provide personality ratings of hypothetical students who smoke cigarettes, students who are clinically obese, and students who had been repeatedly convicted of theft.
         Summary scores on ratings of smokers, ratings of nonsmokers, ratings of obese students, and ratings of students who had been repeatedly convicted of theft were calculated (high scores indicate more positive characteristics).  Within-subject t-tests revealed that smokers were rated significantly more negatively than nonsmokers (smokers x= 14.53, s.d.= 2.88, versus nonsmokers x= 17.12, s.d.= 2.83; t=6.86, df= 97, p< .000).  No significant differences were found between overall ratings of college student smokers and clinically obese student smokers.  Student smokers’ ratings were significantly more positive than overall ratings of criminal students (smokers x= 14.53, s.d.= 2.88, versus criminals x= 10.51, s.d.= 4.38; t= 9.34, df= 97, p<.000).
         Discriminatory attitudes among students, teachers, and employers were compared across the three target populations (smokers, obese students, and students convicted of theft).  Criminals were seen as experiencing the greatest amount of discrimination from students, teachers, and employers.  Given the finding that smokers were rated more negatively than nonsmokers and as negatively as clinically obese students, students who smoke in order to enhance their social image may want to reconsider their choice.  The fact that smokers were described less negatively than criminals suggests that while smoking may be seen as anti-social in some respects, it is not perceived to be as much of a violation of the rights of others as crimes such as theft.

THE BENEFITS ASSOCIATED WITH FORMAL DANCE LESSONS ON ADOLESCENT GIRLS

Terra Vicario and Catherine Chambliss
Ursinus College

         This study examines the benefits of taking dance classes on adolescent girls ages 13-20.  The mean age of participants was 14.84 years and the total number of participants was 26.  Multiple factors were assessed using a survey composed of several sections.  General background information assessing age, grade, number of years they have taken dance lessons, number of years they have been at the same dance school, sibling gender, and whether their sibling was involved in dance were obtained.  The following variables were reviewed using a four point Likert-format scale (4= strongly agree to 1= strongly disagree): self-esteem, body image, dance ability, and peer and parent relationships.  Information on behavior in preparation before dance classes and inhibitions about dancing in front of others was obtained using a five point Likert-format scale (item scores ranged from 5= always to 1= never).  The girls were also asked to rate their dance ability, their attractiveness as compared to other girls in school, and several emotions experienced while dancing.  This was done using a ten point scale (10= highest and 1= lowest).  To assess extraversion, the 22-item extraversion subscale for the Eysenck Personality Inventory (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1963) was used.  An open ended question concluded the survey.  The hypothesis for this study was that subjects with more dance experience would have a higher level of perceived success, attractiveness, body awareness, and time management skills.  Extraversion was expected to mediate these effects.  Future research on the attitudes of dance students versus non-dance students is planned in order to extend this work on the effects of dance instruction.

FORGIVENESS AND COLLEGE ROOMMATE CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Kristin Gettel and Marion Mason
Bloomsburg University

         The role of forgiveness in college roommate conflict resolution is the main focus of this investigation.  Interpersonal forgiveness is the willingness to forsake the right to be unpleasant to one who has ill-treated the person attempting to forgive and possibly the reconciliation of those involved (Enright, 1991).  Forgiveness can be approached in several different ways, such as forgiveness as a moral rule, a waiver, an emotional process, reconciliation, and/or a religious value (Mason, 2000).  Though forgiveness has been researched in the past, very little research includes the evaluation of roommate relationships.  Similar to any relationship, conflicts are likely to arise in roommate relationships.  So forgiveness is critical in healthy roommate relationships.
         Test packets administered included items regarding background information, closeness, conflict level, resolution strategies, forgiveness, and a mediator’s effect on forgiveness and the quality of mediation.  Closeness was measured by social satisfaction, time spent, and social support.  Closeness as measured by social satisfaction was correlated with forgiveness as a moral rule and negatively correlated with forgiveness as a waiver.
         Conflict was measured by dissimilar living habits and levels of conflict.  Dissimilar living habits were negatively correlated with forgiveness as a moral rule.  Fighting was negatively associated with forgiveness as a moral rule and an emotional process but associated with forgiveness as a waiver.
         Resolution strategies were measured based on Sillars (1980) definitions of conflict resolution strategies.  A passive-indirect resolution strategy, in which communication is suppressed, and the integrative resolution strategy, characterized by high quality communication, were associated with forgiveness as a moral rule, religious value, and emotional process.  These are also associated negatively with forgiveness as a waiver.
         About half roommates who involved a mediator in conflict situations did find it helpful in forgiving their roommate in that situation.  However, mediation quality was correlated with finding the mediation helpful in forgiveness.

PERCEIVED INTRUSION OF PERSONAL PROBLEMS IN THE WORKPLACE: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRAVERTS AND INTROVERTS

Dawn Chavous and Catherine Chambliss
Ursinus College

        It was hypothesized that personal problems negatively affect ability to complete various types of tasks at work, and that many employees feel hesitant to express their problems while on the job.  Furthermore, it was also hypothesized that, regardless of the attitude toward the work environment, more introverted participants will be less comfortable in sharing personal problems than extraverted participants.
        A questionnaire comprised of items assessing work ability during periods of personal problems, comfort level regarding work environment and co-workers, and questions measuring extraversion taken from the Eysenck Personality Inventory Scale, was administered to 100 students enrolled in an introductory psychology class.
        Most respondents (84%) reported feeling forced to ignore personal issues while at work, but the majority of the participants (88%) felt this to be a reasonable expectation.  Close to half (40%) reported that ignoring personal problems at work helps them feel better.  On this variable, t-tests showed no significant gender differences, nor significant differences between introverts and extroverts.  Nearly half of the respondents (44%) are generally unable to focus their attention on work when personal issues arise.  Roughly half (51%) find it difficult to write when personal problems occur.  Over half found it difficult to participate actively in meetings (73%), speak in public (81%), and perform quantitative calculations (63%) at work when personal problems arise.  Even when faced with outside personal problems, the majority of respondents still found it easy to type (61%) and answer phones (59%).  Over half of the respondents (56%) felt that they have to put on a mask while at work, but a similar proportion of respondents found it helpful to talk with co-workers about personal issues outside of work.  Between-group t-tests revealed only one significant difference related to extraversion: introverts were significantly more likely to stay late to finish work than extraverts (x=2.55, s.d.=1.04, n=42 versus x=2.00, s.d.= 1.06, n=4.0, respectively; t=2.36, df=80, p< .03).

THE EFFECTS OF MOOD INDUCTION ON HUMOR APPRECIATION

Jacquelyn Martin and Susan McGaffick
Ithaca College

         Humor has the ability to elevate mood in people who are in a negative mood (Moran & Massam, 1999).  In this study, we examined the relationship between an induced mood and humor appreciation.  Specifically, we were looking to see if participants in negatively induced moods rated jokes as less funny and showed fewer displays of mirth.  Subjects participated in one of three conditions: elated, neutral, or depressed.  In each condition, we induced mood change by exposing the participants to thirty statements that Velten (1968) developed.  Participants then rated a set of ten jokes on a Likert-type scale as to how funny they found them.  While participants listened to the jokes, we recorded their displays of mirth (e.g., laughing and smiling).  To assess their mood, each participant filled out a Mood Adjective Checklist three times during the study: prior to being exposed to the Velton statements, prior to rating the jokes, and after rating the jokes.  We hypothesize that our results will indicate that participants in the depressed condition will rate jokes as less funny and show fewer mirth responses than those in the neutral or elated conditions.

RELIABILITY OF QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION TESTS

Anninha D. Nonnenmacher and Thomas P. Hogan
University of Scranton

         Researchers have identified three distinct types of quantitative estimation tasks: computational, measurement, and numerosity estimation.  Previous research has shown adequate reliability for computational estimation, but the reliability of measurement and numerosity estimation has been problematic.  We attempted to establish adequate reliability for these tests.  Results indicated that a reasonable level of reliability can be reached for the numerosity estimation test with an adequate number of trials.  However, reliability of the measurement estimation test remained inadequate.

IMPLEMENTING BLACKBOARD AND OTHER MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATIONS FOR THE PURPOSE OF AUGMENTING AND ASSESSING PEDAGOGICAL OUTCOMES IN LARGE LECTURE CLASS SETTINGS

Melanie J. Martin, Heather A. Larson, Neophytos L. Papaneophytou, Sudeep J. John, & Glenn Albright
Brooklyn College and the Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York, Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York, and Baruch College of the City University of New York

         The use of multimedia technology is becoming a standard in college and university settings around the world; thus, it is not atypical to find some sort of multimedia enhancement in psychology courses.  The challenge now becomes how to introduce and fully utilize web-based technology in large classroom settings.  In this research, Blackboardä, an internet-based interactive learning software program, was used in two classes of Introduction to Psychology, each containing around 400 students.  This presentation explains how Blackboardä and other multimedia presentations were managed in such a large venue, and how the instructors encouraged the participation and involvement of the students to enhance their psychology learning experience.  In addition, outcomes in student performance and satisfaction are assessed.

THE ROLE OF GENDER AND THE SELF-REFERENCE EFFECT IN IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT MEMORY TASKS

Lisa Fosnocht and Donna Ondik
Elizabethtown College

         This experiment examined the relationship between the self-reference effect, gender roles, and implicit memory.  Sixty-four Elizabethtown College students were given lists of words consisting of feminine, masculine, and neutral attributes from the Bem Inventory Word List (1978).  Participants were asked whether they could apply each word to him or her self.  After a filler activity, participants were either asked to recall as many of the words from the list as possible (explicit task) or to complete a series of word fragments (implicit task).  The participants had not been informed that they were going to take a recall test.  It was hypothesized that males would remember more masculine words, females more feminine words, and both genders would recall the neutral words equally due to the self-reference effect.  It was also hypothesized that more words would be remembered in the explicit condition than in the implicit condition.  The results revealed that the self-reference effect was present in the study.

THE EFFECT OF BELIEF ON RELAXATION PRACTICE

Lisa Sagato and Rita Wolpert
Caldwell College

         This study investigated the effect of belief on relaxation practice.  Thirty-two psychology honor students in an intact Catholic high school class were randomly assigned to an experimental group and a control group.  At the beginning of the experiment all students were given the Common Belief Inventory for Students (1987) to assure the equality of the groups.  Both groups received four, ten-minute sessions of progressive relaxation and meditation combined.  Before and after the relaxation session, students reported their level of relaxation on a scale from one to ten.  The students in the experimental group chose a focus word or phrase, which they personally believed would provide them with hope and strength, and repeated the word to themselves while practicing relaxation.  The students in the control group participated in the same activity, but instead of using a focus word, they repeated the word “one” to themselves.  Both groups took part in this activity at the same time.  The experimenters and rooms were counterbalanced.  The data confirmed the hypothesis.  The results showed that the ability to relax was greater for the experimental group who used a personally chosen word, than for the control group who used a neutral word during relaxation practice, t(28)= 3.62, p<.05.

SUCCESSIVE TASTE CONTRAST IN HUMANS USING COMMON FOODSTUFFS AS GUSTATORY STIMULI

Gregory J. Markiewicz and Steven M. Specht
Utica College

         The present research was designed to investigate taste contrast effects using gustatory stimuli which are more complex than has been typically employed in previous research (i.e., potato chips and ice cream rather than simple solutions of sucrose, quinine, or NaCl).
         A total of 99 male and female participants were recruited on a volunteer basis from the student population at Utica College.  Participants were asked to taste and rate two sequential samples of either potato chips or ice cream.  The potato chip samples were presented in one of the following four sequences: no salt/no salt, no salt/salt, salt/no salt, or salt/salt.  The ice cream samples were presented in one of the following four sequences: low fat/low fat, low fat/fat, fat/low fat, or fat/fat.  Participants rated the stimuli using visual analog scales which were 245mm in length and included descriptors which referred to that taste qualities of the respective stimuli.
         Subjects rated the no salt chips as significantly less “salty” (F(1,47)= 4.46; p<.05) and less “flavorful” (F(1,47)= 6.46; p< .05) when they were preceded by the salty chips than when they were sampled in the other conditions.  Subjects rated the low fat ice cream as significantly less “rich” (F(1,44)= 6.66; p< .05) when it was preceded by “regular” ice cream than when it was sampled in the other conditions.  The effect was almost significant for “pleasantness” ratings (F(1,44)= 3.96; p< .07).  These results indicate that successive negative contrast occurs for these gustatory stimuli.
         Findings from this study will extend our laboratory investigations of taste contrast by allowing us to begin to examine more complex and common foodstuffs to understand taste perception outside the laboratory.

THE EFFECT OF ATTACHMENT STYLE ON LOCUS OF CONTROL

Kate E. Jurgel and Danielle E. Tuller
Barnard College

         Past research has linked locus of control with general parenting styles.  The research done attempted to establish a relationship between adult attachment style and internal-external locus of control.  Part two of Hazan and Shaver’s Romantic Relationships Questionnaire (1987) was utilized to measure adult attachment, and Valecha’s Abbreviated 11-Item Rotter IE Scale (1972) was used to determine locus of control.  It was hypothesized that a secure attachment style would predict an internal locus of control while insecure attachment styles (both ambivalent and avoidant) would predict an external locus of control.  Sixty-eight individuals, aged approximately 18-24 were surveyed at Barnard College and Columbia College, an urban Ivy League institution.  The hypothesis was found to be correct; results proved a significant relationship between attachment style and locus of control.  Securely attached individuals reported a bias toward the internal pole of locus of control, while insecurely attached individuals reported a bias toward the external pole of locus of control.  No significant differences were found between the two insecurely attached styles in relation to locus of control.  Future research, by way of a longitudinal study, may be able to determine if locus of control and attachment style are interdependently subject to change over the life span.

ALZHEIMER’S AND WANDERING: VISION OR MEMORY PROBLEM

Nicole Thomas and Sue Rossetter
Elizabethtown College

         Alzheimer’s disease effects nearly fifty percent of those over 85 years of age in the United States.  Alzheimer’s disease effects the pario occipital cortex that causes visiospatial disorientation along with memory loss.  It has been reported that the wandering and disorientation occurs because patients may not remember where they are or the destination that they had in mind.  Other research has suggested that they wander because of disorientation of optic flow.  We suggest that they wander because they fail to accurately remember their surroundings, not because of deterioration of vision.  Alzheimer’s and non Alzheimer’s patients were given a tactile memory maze to test their speed and accuracy of going from one destination to the other.  After a delay period when a filler task was presented they were re-tested, however they were unable to look at the maze when they were re-tested.  It was found that Alzheimer’s patients had a more difficult time learning the tactile maze and completing the task in the second trial.

“YOU’RE A GREAT KID” EFFECTS ON COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE: PEER VS. AUTHORITY DIFFERENCES FOR KINDERGARTEN BOYS AND GIRLS

Laura Venuto, Lisa Feldman, Jamie Donsbach, and Nancy Rader
Ithaca College

         This study is investigating the effect praise has on the subsequent performance on a cognitive task.  The praise given is for the child as a person, not praise for task performance.  The study is designed to look at the effects of the presence or absence of praise, whether the speaker is an authority or peer figure, and the gender of the child participants.  To date, 55 children, aged 5 and 6 years, have been tested, and we anticipate testing another 25.  There are four conditions to which children are randomly assigned: Authority Praise, Authority No-Praise, Peer Praise, and Peer No-Praise.  The conditions are realized through the use of videotapes that introduce the child to the lab and to the task that follows.  The Praise conditions include two additional, brief sentences indicating that the child is “very special” and “a great kid”.  The sex of the speaker on the videotape is matched to that of the child.  The task that follows is made up of a set of six puzzles that are ordered from easy to difficult.  The child has fifteen minutes to work on the puzzles, but can stop at any time prior to that.  The dependent variable is an efficiency score, defined as the total number of puzzle pieces placed correctly, divided by the total time spent working on the puzzles.  It is hypothesized that girls will respond best to authority praise and boys to peer praise.  This pattern of response is supported by the results we have to date.

PARTNER VIOLENCE IN THE WORKPLACE: A PILOT STUDY

Robin Beaumont
Villanova University

         The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the prevalence of partner violence occurring in the workplace environment.  Although previous workplace violence studies show that partner violence has a substantial effect on the workplace, impacting such issues as productivity, absenteeism, and lateness, there have been few specific studies examining the occurrence of partner violence in the work environment.  The present study employed a modified workplace violence survey established by Corporate Alliance to End Partner Violence.  The survey was presented on-line at a Philadelphia website for a Chapter of the Society of Human Resource Management (SHRM).  The survey was also presented to employed graduate students taking graduate courses at a mid-size university in a suburb of Philadelphia.  Out of 26 respondents, 16 were female and 4 were male.  While respondents did not complete the demographic section, the following characteristics are derived from those who did.  Respondents ranged in age from under 25 to over 65.  Four ethnic groups responded: African American (n=3), Native North American (n=2), Native South American (n=1), and European ancestry (n=15).  Twenty percent of respondents reported they know a coworker that is experiencing partner violence issues at work.  Sixteen percent reported being aware of employees receiving harassing phone calls, and eight percent reported knowledge of coworkers being stalked on company property.  Twenty percent of respondents reported coworker to coworker harassment and twenty percent reported having been harassed in the past by a coworker or supervisor.  Age, ethnicity, and the quality of company policies were examined in this study.  Further research in this area is recommended as public awareness regarding the impact and prevalence of partner violence grows.

IDENTIFICATION OF UPRIGHT AND INVERTED FACIAL EXPRESSIONS BY PRE-SCHOOL AGED CHILDREN

Jasmin Guadalupe
Elizabethtown College

         Inversion has been shown to interfere with the recognition of facial expressions when encoding isolated parts of a face in adults.  However, inverted face recognition is improved when attending to a distracter.  Moreover, adults recognize positive expressions more quickly and accurately than angry faces.  Therefore, pre-schoolers participated in this study in order to compare their results with adults in an effort to further understand the development of face recognition.  In a sample of 20 pre-schoolers (M = 5 yr. Old) the recognition of different emotions in upright and inverted faces was studied.  This study also contrasts the identification of four different expressions: angry, sad, happy, and neutral.  Sixteen face drawings were used in which the shape of the mouth and brows were drawn to depict sad, happy, angry, or neutral expressions.  Hair color was used as a distracter in this experiment, so eight of the face drawings had brown hair and the other eight drawings had yellow hair.  In addition, half of each hair color was upright and the other half was inverted.  Participants viewed each face for two seconds and were required to attend to both the brows and the mouth or the hair color of the face.  Data was collected as to whether the response after viewing the face was correct or incorrect according to the facial expression.  Results were congruent with previous research on adults and indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between correct responses for happy and angry faces, with happy faces being identified more correctly than angry faces.  However, there were no statistically significant differences between participants in the expression and hair color conditions when identifying upright or inverted faces.  This study implies that pre-schoolers maintain the same tendency as adults to recognize positive faces more accurately than negative faces.

PIECING TOGETHER EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE

Kristie Bruno & Eileen England
Ursinus College

         The purpose of this presentation is to examine the theoretical frameworks of emotional and social intelligence.  As defined by Daniel Goldman (1995), emotional intelligence entails a variety of different abilities that are essential in securing and maintaining a healthy life.  For instance, being aware of what triggers anger is an essential tool in learning how to manage it in an effective way.  The key component in strengthening emotional development lies in the correct identification and understanding of physiological emotional states and the situations that elicit them.  On the other hand, social intelligence involves the intricate knowledge and understanding of social interactions and people.  Accurately assessing people’s reactions in social interactions and reaching positive interpersonal outcomes is the hallmark of social intelligence (Kelly, 1998).  A key component in strengthening social intelligence lies in the understanding of emotions, and therefore, both emotional and social intelligence are interdependently related.  Emotional intelligence is an internal mechanism regulating the self and social intelligence is an external mechanism regulating relationships.  The development of social intelligence can’t occur in the absence of emotional intelligence and the best indicator of emotional intelligence lies in the continued development of the social being.  The present discussion of the theoretical frameworks of emotional and social intelligence is from the developmental perspective.

THE USE OF PSYCHODRAMATIC METHODS IN HELPING COLLEGE FEMALES WITH CONFLICTUAL ISSUES AND DIFFICULT EXPERIENCES

Melissa Grieco
Ursinus College

         Psychodrama is the combination of group psychotherapy and improvisational drama to help the participants of a group make a positive change in perspective towards a particular problem, relationship, or situation.  In addition to discussing problems with other people facing similar difficulties in life, the psychodramatic method allows for a participant to act out, relive, and change scenarios in life that are painful and harmful.  The goal of the psychodramatic group is to lead each participant in a journey through action towards a catharsis that will help them make a positive change in life.  In this study, four college females volunteered to participate in a group using the psychodramatic method.  Each of the four women was asked to compose a monologue about a significant event or situation in their lives.  After the completion of the monologues, each participant met with the group leader to discuss what was written, the event or situation that was written about, and to ensure that the participant would be comfortable with acting out a scene about the situation within a group context.  The participants were also given a questionnaire including a self-esteem index, a satisfaction with life survey, and a measure of depression.  Group meetings were held weekly for five weeks.  The psychodramatic methods used included warm-up, action, and processing/sharing to guide each protagonist through their psychodramatic scene.  At the completion of the project, the original surveys were re-administered with the addition of a survey asking about the effectiveness of the group.  The methods used in the group were found to be effective in helping participants reach a catharsis about their situation.  The survey concerning the effectiveness of the group indicated that the majority of the group found the program and psychodrama to be helpful in dealing with and working through issues.

RISK TAKING, SENSATION SEEKING, & JUNGIAN PERSONALITY TRAITS

James Davison
Ursinus College

         The tendency for risk-taking is an aspect of personality that has been neglected until recently.  More scientists have been studying it recently but research on the topic is still scarce.  It is important to study in that early knowledge of risk-taking tendencies can be used to influence children to channel these traits in a positive manner, avoiding possible delinquency in their future.  Two popular ways of understanding risk-taking involve a biochemical view, like that put forth by Zukerman, and an optimal arousal theory, like that put forth by Farley.  This study is similar in nature to one done by Frank Farley in exploring a relationship between C.G. Jung’s personality system and risk-taking, though in this study only Zuckerman’s Sensation-Seeking Scale was used to measure risk-taking.  The Keirsey-Bates was used to determine Jungian types; both it and the Zuckerman scale were administered to a sample of college students.  An analysis of variance links both the extraverted and feeling traits with sensation seeking.  An interpretation of these results is offered, along with a comparison to Farley’s study and possible ramifications.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESPONSIBILITY, ANGER, AND BLAME

David Pietrazewski, Ches Kasow, Sarah Gates, Christine Gomes, Lindsay Steingart, Sarah DiNicola, Melanie Friedberg, Katie Hempel, Bridget Reynolds, Amanda Rudy, David Bown, & Heather Swicicki
Ithaca College

         Weiner (1995) contends that a cognitive process of assigning personal responsibility for an event occurs if both personal causality and mutability are present.  Mitigating circumstances, however, may “soften, alleviate, or totally eliminate a judgment of responsibility about a person” (Weiner, 1995, p.9).  Outcome magnitude may also influence judgments of responsibility.  Previous research has failed to support Weiner’s contention that as anger and responsibility increase, the ratings of blame will also increase.  In this study, 333 undergraduates (241 females, 92 males) read one of four scenarios about a classmate’s failure to turn in his/her portion of a group project.  These scenarios manipulated both mitigating circumstances and outcome magnitude.  Consistent with Weiner’s hypothesis, results indicated that the presence of mitigating circumstances did significantly reduce ratings of responsibility, anger, and blame.  As anger and responsibility increased, so did ratings of blame.  There was a multivariate effect of outcome magnitude; however, no univariate effects emerged.  Finally, the results support the notion that blame increases as anger and responsibility increase.

THE INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL ON SEXUAL ASSAULT INCIDENTS ON COLLEGE CAMPUSES

Enid Colon, Julian Wells, and Catherine Chambliss
Ursinus College

        The present study examines the rate of sexual assault incidents and accessibility of alcohol on college campuses.  Of the campuses selected, two were small liberal arts colleges and the other was a larger public university.  The schools' samples varied in terms of alcohol policies (ranging from student enforced policies permitting drinking among students 21 and older to an alcohol free campus policy).  Two hypotheses were proposed: (1) campuses with liberal alcohol policies were expected to have a higher rate of sexual assault than campuses with conservative alcohol policies, (2) drinkers, as opposed to non-drinkers, were expected to have experienced more sexual assault incidents and (3) first year students, as compared to upperclassmen, were expected to report experiencing a higher number of sexual assault incidents.  Questionnaires were distributed to 177 students, 105 of which were female.  The questionnaire included demographic questions, as well as questions on sexual assault experiences (i.e., sexual remarks, sexual contact, forced intercourse, etc.).  Students were asked whether alcohol was involved in the sexual assault incidents.  This data was then compiled, recorded and analyzed.  Results indicated that the small liberal arts college with a conservative alcohol policy had the highest rate of alcohol use, followed closely by the small liberal arts college with a liberal alcohol policy; the medium size public university with a conservative alcohol policy was characterized by moderate rate of alcohol use.   Between group t-tests indicated that drinkers experienced more sexual incidents than the nondrinkers.  These included sexual remarks, request for sexual contact, and unwanted casual sexual contact.  No significant difference in unwanted intrusive sexual contact or unwanted intercourse were found, probably in part because reports of them were very rare.  A trend in the data indicated that the juniors and seniors reported higher rates
of experiencing unwanted intercourse than the freshmen and sophomores.

ATTRACTIVENESS IN PERSONNEL SELECTION: THE UGLY SIDE OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITY

Micah J. Ross
Kutztown University

        The present study examined the effects of physical attractiveness on personnel selection. Two hypotheses were proposed. First, it was predicted that an attractive candidate would receive higher ratings of hireability than an unattractive candidate would be given. Second, it was predicted that males would show more discrimination against the unattractive candidate in their hireability ratings than females would. The participants were seventy-two undergraduate students (32 male, 40 female) from Kutztown University that participated in the experiment voluntarily. The subjects were given a package constructed of an applicant's resumé and the description of the company and job they were applying for. The package was the same for all conditions of the experiment, except for the addition of a picture of either an attractive or unattractive candidate to each resumé. Participants were randomly assigned to either the condition including the attractive picture or the condition containing the unattractive picture. After viewing the stimulus materials, the participants filled out a questionnaire containing three questions rated on a bipolar, 6-point scale. The hireability rating was found by adding the numbered responses from the three questions. As predicted, there was a main effect of attractiveness of candidate, F (1, 68) = 5.21, p <.03. The attractive candidate received significantly higher ratings of hireability (M = 15.12, SD = 1.37) than the unattractive one was given (M = 14.37, SD = 1.79). However, contrary to prediction, there was not a significant Gender of Participant X Attractiveness of Candidate interaction, F (1, 68) = 2.06, p > .05.
        Males did not discriminate significantly more than females did against the unattractive candidate. The results of this experiment have implications for establishing equal opportunity in the workplace. With a more gender-diverse group of personnel directors in the workplace today, it appears that attractiveness-related discrimination is not only a male bias, but an important issue crossing gender lines that needs to be addressed.

EFFECTS OF MATERIAL AND PRAISE REWARDS ON INTRINSIC INTEREST IN A HIGHLY ENJOYABLE TASK

Steven Placid Kachmar
Kutztown University

         The effects of material and praise rewards on a child’s intrinsic interest of a highly enjoyable task were tested through the duration of a video game playing time following the cessation of rewards.  Twenty male and twenty female youth, between the ages of 9 and 13, were randomly assigned to either an external or praise reward condition.  The youth assigned to the external rewards condition received a piece of candy every two minutes of a sixteen-minute period; the members of the praise reward condition received only verbal praise every two minutes.  Rewards stopped at the end of the sixteen-minute periods, and participants were allowed to continue playing a video game for as long as they wished.  These playing times were then recorded.  The results were characterized by a significantly larger difference in the mean length of time that the participants in the verbal praise condition continued to play the video game after rewards ceased.  Inspection of these results support the overjustification hypothesis and the position that the expectation of a reward for the completion of an interesting activity will yield lower intrinsic interest in the activity if reward is not offered.

COLLEGE SUCCESS AS PREDICTED BY RATED INTELLIGENCE AND ATTRACTIVENESS

Megan McCourt and Galen Baril
University of Scranton

         A sample of 208 photographs from an entering freshman class of 927 students was rated on a 7-point sale for attractiveness and intelligence.  Performance was measured by how many semesters the student was on the dean’s list.  Although no relationship exists between intelligence ratings and actual performance, there is a negative relationship between attractiveness and performance for males, which is congruent with research.

TESTS EMPLOYED IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH

Jennifer M. Daley and Thomas P. Hogan
University of Scranton

        This study identified psychological tests used in 330 research studies published in two well-known school psychology journals over a three-year period.  Results of research usage of tests were compared with self-reported usage of tests in professional practice.  Several widely used intelligence and achievement tests dominate the research literature, followed by a host of lesser-used personality measures.  Whereas projective techniques appear frequently in self-reported professional use, research usage of these tests is infrequent.

A META-ANALYSIS OF TEENAGE PREGNANCY PREVENTION PROGRAMS

Madonna Green, Katrina Milton, & George Fago
Ursinus College

        The objectives of our research are to attempt to answer the questions: why do adolescent pregnancy prevention programs have low success rates, and are there any marginal effects of the programs that may be shown to be significant by a meta-analysis of the results of the studies collectively.  The meta-analytic approach involves three steps: (1) identify relevant published studies and review them to identify relevant independent and dependent variables, (2) develop a coding system for the variables and code all the relevant studies, (3) using the master data file, perform the meta-analysis on the collective results.  The results of the meta-analysis show that the studies that used a variation of the social-cognitive approach are effective.  Both the t and z values were significant (t =6.3714, z =6.3352, p< .00001).  The significance indicates the social-cognitive programs were effective for all of their outcome measures.  Corcoran, Miller, and Bultman (1997) performed a meta-analysis of pregnancy prevention programs using 32 studies.  Their analysis did not support the efficacy of social-cognitive programs.  The probable reason for the disparity of findings is related to the fact that Corcoran et al. included studies that were primarily clinic-based, whereas the present analysis included a substantial number of studies incorporating school based programs.  Clinic based programs typically have not included teaching coping skills, while this instruction is a prominent aspect of school based programs.

A SLIPPERY SLOPE: AFFORDANCE AND PERCEPTUAL JUDGMENTS OF SLANTED SURFACES

John G. Jewell and Sarah Napolitan
Ursinus College

        Bipedal locomotion is tricky business, but most of us can navigate through the environment without incident and with little thought given to the complexity of the task.  In the current study, we were able to replicate previous research suggesting that people can accurately judge the maximum incline of a slanted surface that can afford walking.  Additionally, we found that although estimates of the biomechanical affordance for the slanted surface are accurate, perceptual estimates of the magnitude of the incline are grossly overestimated.  When asked to make an estimate of the slant of the incline, subjects reported that it was more than 150% steeper than its actual slope.  Interestingly, altering the physiological state of the subject, e.g. encumbered with a heavy backpack, can exacerbate this perceptual overestimation; however, the ability of the subject to accurately judge the maximum incline that can afford walking remained intact.  The findings suggest that the overestimation of the magnitude of a slanted surface has a functionally significant role, in that the perceptual system provides a conservative buffer to the more accurate and reliable biomechanical system, which is of particular value during periods of fatigue.

CALCIUM/CALMODULIN-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE II WITHIN THE NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS CORE MODULATES APPETITIVE INSTRUMENTAL LEARNING

A.E. Baldwin, K. Sadeghian, and A.E. Kelley
University of Wisconsin-Madison

        We have recently shown that co-infusion of low doses of D1 and NMDA receptor antagonists into the accumbens core inhibits appetitive instrumental learning.  Additionally, inhibition of PKA, which is activated via D1 receptors, also impairs learning, suggesting that it may contribute to neuroadaptive processes.  To further investigate the possible intracellular mechanisms activated in the learning process, we have examined the effects of intra-accumbens microinfusion of two specific inhibitors of CaMKII; KN-62 and a myristoylated autocamtide-2-related inhibitory peptide (mAIP).  Rats were chronically implanted bilaterally with cannulae aimed at the accumbens core.  Food- deprived animals were trained to level press for sucrose pellets and were tested for 15 minutes each day for 10 days.  On the first five days of testing all animals received mircroinfusions of drug or vehicle.  In the first experiment, animal received infusions of either KN-62 (10 or 20 nmol/1ml) or vehicle (saline).  KN-04 is an inactive structural analog of KN-62 which exhibits only a weak protein kinase inhibition.  In the third experiment animals received either mAIP (5 or 10 nmol/1ml) or vehicle (saline).  On days 6-10 animals in all experiments were tested without infusion.  On day 11, animals in all experiments received an additional pre-test infusion as on days 1-5.  Pretreatment with either KN-62 or mAIP impaired learning as compared to control animals.  KN-04, used as a control for possible side effects of KN-62, also impaired learning, though to a lesser extent than KN-62.  These results suggest that CaMKII in the nucleus accumbens core may also contribute to long-term neuradaptations involved in appetitive instrumental learning.  Supported by NIDA grant # DA04788.

MOTHERS' BELIEFS ABOUT DISCIPLINE AND CHILDREN'S UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL EMOTIONS

Stefanie Sinno and Eileen England
Ursinus College

        In studies of moral emotions, approximately fifty percent of children through college age expect a victimizer to feel good rather than bad after committing a moral transgression (e.g., Murgatroyd & Robinson, 1993).  Parents differ from college students because parents are responsible for the moral education of children.  Some parents discipline with aversive techniques (Krevans & Gibbs, 1996), whereas others discipline by explaining the hurtful implications (e.g., Baumrind, 1971).  Mothers’ beliefs about parenting techniques might be related to their children’s attribution of emotions to transgressors.  The purpose of this study was to investigate mothers’ understanding of the victimizer in moral transgressions and to investigate whether mother’s beliefs about discipline are related to children’s attributions of emotions.  Mothers and their 7- to 8-year-old children participated.  Both children and mothers answered questions about children committing two moral transgressions, theft and physical harm.  Mothers responded similarly to children.  Many said the transgressors felt good and said the victimizers were happy to have achieved their goals.  Both also said distressed victimizers who had taken property were upset at having committed a moral violation, but those who had harmed another child were upset at having hurt the victim.  We had expected that mothers who advocated aversive child-rearing techniques would have children who believed that the victimizer would feel good.  These results did not obtain.  Most frequently, mothers said that explanations as to why behavior is immoral are important.  Implications are discussed.

COMPARISON OF EYEBLINK CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN TWINS WITH AND WITHOUT DYSLEXIA

Adam Albert, Kim Schneider, Josh O’Neill and Joan M. Coffin
King’s College

        Eyeblink Classical Conditioning (EBCC) has been demonstrated to be a useful tool in diagnosing
differences in associate learning related to reading fluency. We have recently presented evidence that
EBCC can be used to discriminate between subtypes of learning differences, specifically dyslexia and
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). In the present study we compared EBCC scores between twin sets,
each set with one twin diagnosed with a learning difference. The study participants included one set of
mirror image 22 year-old males, two sets of fraternal twins (one male, one female) ages 5 and 6,
respectively, and one set of identical 8 year-old males.
        Each participant was tested on EBCC in the 400 ms delay paradigm: 500 ms tone (CS) co-terminating with
a 100 ms airpuff (US). Sessions were 64 paired trials and 8 CS-alone trials. The percentage of CRs and
latency of responses were assessed for each twin set. The results were consistent with our previous
findings, indicating that dyslexics do not achieve the conditioned response in this form of simple
associative learning (p<0.0001), and their response latency is significantly slower.
        The set of 22-year-old twins underwent EBCC of the right cerebellum for a five-day period. The dyslexic
twin achieved fewer than 2% CRs in each of the five conditioning sessions. The non-dyslexic twin learned
the conditioned response in fewer than 30 trials in the first session, and achieved 90% CRs by the fifth
session. Average response latency was also notably different (< 300 ms, non-dyslexic twin; >500 ms,
dyslexic twin). Following a 6-month interval, each twin was tested for acquisition of EBCC on the left
eye. The dyslexic twin again failed to learn the conditioned response. His identical twin achieved the
learning criterion of 8/9 CRs in the first block of training. The results indicated strong transfer of training
for the non-dyslexic twin and no evidence of a memory trace for the CR in the non-dyslexic twin.
        The results indicate that the organization and/ or neural processing in the cerebellum is different within
these twin sets. The evidence from the identical twins sets is most compelling for this argument, suggesting
that the cerebellum is strongly associated with reading fluency, and that EBCC has potential as a
diagnostic tool.

DIFFERENCES IN ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING IN CHILDREN WITH READING DISABILITIES

Kim Schneider, Josh O’Neill, Tracy Cappiccille & Joan M. Coffin
King’s College

        Previously, we have reported that eyeblink classical conditioning (EBCC) is a sensitive measure of reading fluency among college-aged students diagnosed with specific reading disabilities. EBCC is a form of simple associative learning, and is dependent upon the integrity of the Purkinje cell layer of the cerebellar cortex and their associated deep cerebellar nuclei. We have demonstrated that individuals with dyslexia are unable to form the simple associations required in EBCC, even after five days of testing. Among individuals with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), the required association occurs significantly faster than among non-disabled readers.  The present study extends our initial findings to children experiencing difficulties with reading.
        A total of 11 children (5 to 12 years of age) were tested on EBCC in the 400 ms delay paradigm. Each conditioning trial consisted of a 500 ms tone (CS), which co-terminated with a 100 ms corneal airpuff (US). Testing sessions consisted of 64 paired, and 8 unpaired tone-alone trials. A conditioned response (CR) was scored when an eyeblink response was recorded prior to the airpuff.
        For statistical analyses, EBCC results were assessed by evidence of reading difficulty. Of the eleven children who completed the testing session, five scored within the dyslexic range, and three scored as ADD. The remaining three children served as control subjects for their siblings. An additional 12 children served as base-line control subjects.
Across groups, the percentage of CRs was statistically significant with controls scoring a mean of 71%, ADD children 66 %, and dyslexic children 8% CRs (p<0.0001). A second measure, response latency, was also analyzed. Controls responded to the CS in an average of 378 ms., ADD in 366 ms, and dyslexics in 580 ms. The results were statistically significant (p<0.0001), indicating that dyslexics fail to respond within the test trial parameters of 400 ms. ADD children and controls did not differ significantly on response latency across the 8 blocks of training, however, ADD children required fewer CRs to reach the learning criterion of 8/9 CRs, and responded more quickly to the CS (300 ms vs. 517 ms) in the first 3 blocks of training.
        The results of the study indicate that EBCC can detect differences in associative learning in children as young as 5 years of age. These differences have been closely associated with reading skills in young adults diagnosed with specific learning disabilities. It is suggested that EBCC is a sensitive diagnostic measure of cerebellar function in children as young as 5 years of age and may be strongly associated with reading fluency, even in pre-readers.

COMPARISON OF LEFT AND RIGHT CEREBELLAR EYEBLINK CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN NON-LEARNING DISABLED READERS

Alisha Hepfer, Marsha Miller, & Joan M. Coffin
King’s College

        We have recently presented studies that indicated the engagement of the right cerebellum in reading tasks (Marston & Coffin, 2000). These studies demonstrate that when the cerebellum is engaged in processing two simultaneous tasks, novel eyeblink classical conditioning (EBCC) and short-term memory of standard words, the cerebellum devotes its processing to the novel task, EBCC. The study strongly supports the role of the cerebellum in reading tasks, specifically reading fluency. This evidence is supported by numerous studies indicating subtle cerebellar dysfunction in individuals diagnosed with dyslexia, and the failure of dyslexics to achieve EBCC. This is true even among dyslexic participants in our studies who learned the verbal task.
        In the present study we sought to isolate cerebellar involvement in reading fluency to the right hemisphere. Using the identical format employed to measure right cerebellar processing, we tested ten non-learning disabled college students simultaneously on left cerebellar EBCC and a short-term verbal memory task. Participants were trained in the 400 ms delay EBCC paradigm, using a 500 ms tone CS and 100 ms airpuff US, co-terminating in the final 100 ms of each trial. The percentage of conditioned responses (CRs) and latency of responses in milliseconds were averaged and compared with an earlier data set of right cerebellar participants. Verbal information consisted of 25 common words spliced individually into a silent film viewed by each participant. Each word appeared on the monitor for 500 ms, with an average ITI of 20 seconds. The procedure was identical to that used in the earlier study. The results indicate that there were no statistically significant differences between the groups on either measure. This suggests that the left and right hemispheres are equally engaged in processing short-term verbal information. In both left and right eye conditioning, the percentage of CRs differed from base-line data when presented simultaneously with the verbal task.

MEASURING RACIAL CLIMATE ON COLLEGE CAMPUSES: A BRIEF INSTRUMENT SUITABLE FOR CROSS-CAMPUS COMPARISONS

Shafiq Akhtar, Jane Connor, Anna Jaffe, Susan London, Marilyn Pierce, Quinn Rathjen, Jason Salomon, Jamie Schumpf, Helvin Shek, Keith Sonin
Binghamton University

We developed a brief instrument to measure racial climate and general climate on college campuses and collected preliminary data. Similar studies have been conducted at places such as Indiana State University (ISU).  However, their goal was to determine if the racial climate on campus prevented students from attending ISU. The goal of our study was to find if there is a need to  improve racerelations on campus, and to create an instrument that could be used at different campuses to measure and compare the climate. The subjects were undergraduate students from Binghamton University.  The survey instrument consisted of nine general climate questions, ten racial climate questions, four questions on interaction among different races and three open-ended questions.  The findings showed that all races prefer to interact with members of their own race, Black females feel the most unsafe on campus, and females reported being harassed the most.  In addition, one hundred and seventy-nine out of three hundred and thirty-five subjects reported that racial issues needed to be addressed on campus.

PERCEPTIONS OF THE SERIOUSNESS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION: EFFECTS OF ANECDOTAL AND RESEARCH EVIDENCE ON BELIEFS OF STUDENTS

Nicole Arceri, Sindy Amarillo, Nitin Malik, Nadia Kahn, Franchesca Arias, Lisette Maniatis, Sherene Henry, Robyn Baliber, Jane Connor.
Binghamton University

A number of studies indicate that both memory and decision-making processes are more strongly influenced by the vividness of the information presented to subjects than its statistical reliability or validity.  This study examined students' perceptions of the seriousness of racial discrimination as a problem, and the effects of presenting information in different forms about discrimination toward Black people.  In particular, information was presented either in a vivid, journalistic medium (a video), by reading the results of scientific research, or by a combination of both the video and the reading. A control group worked on word search puzzles. A survey assessed the perceived seriousness of discrimination against Blacks, Whites, Latinos and Asians in different situations.  Results indicated that the three treatment conditions, relative to the control condition, increased students' perception of discrimination as being severe for Blacks.  Students perceived Blacks as being most discriminated against, followed by Latinos, Asians, and then Whites.