The Biology of Religion
Michael S. Osmanski
University of Scranton
In recent years modern neuroscience has uncovered a biological basis for a multitude of behavioral phenomena in both animals
and humans. Recently, one researcher has proposed a biological model of the human religious impulse (Persinger, M. A.,
1993). Grounded in neuroanatomy and physiology, Persinger’s highly controversial model utilizes current knowledge of the
functioning of the human nervous system under both normal and abnormal conditions to attempt an explanation of human
religiosity. Persinger’s model builds on previous research conducted with seizures, temporal lobe epilepsy, and hemispheric
lateralization in human and animal subjects. The model begins with transient bioelectrical "microseizures" within the human
temporolimbic region and ends in the temporoparietal cortex where both "traditional" and "exotic" religious beliefs are
manifested in conscious awareness (Persinger, M. A., 1993). According to Persinger’s model, stimulation to or seizures within
the temporolimbic region may generate auditory or olfactory hallucinations and may prompt one to ascribe intimate and
personal meaning to otherwise common happenings. If this stimulation is generalized to the temporoparietal cortex, the resulting
phenomena would be manifested as religious or mystical experiences (Persinger, M. A., 1993).
How Funny Is This Joke?: It's As Funny As We Tell You It Is
David J. Wimer, William E. Breen, William Doiron, Brian F. Falvey, Gina Feinman, Margaret V. Grondin, Holly M. Larrabee, and Bernard C. Beins
Ithaca College
The humor value of a joke depends on many factors, including characteristics of
the situation in which the joke is encountered. In this study, we examined
whether people's ratings of the humor value of a set of 21 jokes would change
if they learned that others had found the jokes more or less funny. The
research participants learned that they would be rating a set of jokes that
others had already rated. According to the cover story, previous people had
said that the jokes were either (a) horribly unfunny, (b) unfunny, (c) funny,
or (d) hysterically funny. A control group received no message about how
others may have evaluated the jokes. The results indicated that ratings of
identical jokes changed markedly depending on the message that the participants
heard. A single statement of how others have perceived jokes leads to
agreement by naive participants that the jokes are as funny as earlier raters
had said. A simple shift in one's cognitive framework leads to a dramatic
shift in the evaluation of humor.
Differences in Team Cohesion Over the Course of a Season
Kristine Algeo, Leslie Funair, and Megan Larkin
Ursinus College
The purpose of this study is to compare team cohesion over the course of a season depending on winning or losing record.
Cohesion is a dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to work together and remain united in the pursuit
of its goals and objectives. The Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ), was used to measure team cohesion. All of the
athletes came from small liberal arts colleges competing in Division III softball and baseball. Gender was also compared at the
study; however, there were no significant results found between males and female team cohesion over the course of a season.
The hypothesis being tested is that winning teams will perceive greater level of group cohesiveness at the end of a successful
game. The results of this study proved that team cohesion, did however decrease over the course of a season, but remained
the highest over all, for more successful teams. The most signifiacnt results were found within the winning teams, showing the
highest levels of ATTASK and GITASK variables, which measured attitude towards the team effort and feelings about the
group integration with respect to group effort. The two remaining measures indexing attitudes regarding the social aspects of
the team did not produce significant differences.
Gender Differences in Computer-Related Attitudes and Stress
Janet Wentum
Binghamton University
Research has shown that computers are targeted mainly at boys and men. Recorded differences in gender attitudes towards
the computer, especially in anxiety levels, have been demonstrated in numerous studies (Hudiburg, Brown, & Jones, 1993;
Millar, 1996; Hudiburg, et al. 1996). However, these studies did not determine whether or not computer anxiety led to a
decrease in computer usage. We hypothesize that although males and females have equal access to computers in schools,
differences in computer-related anxiety levels between the genders would initially put female students at a disadvantage in
learning to use the computer and result in fewer female enrollees in computer-related fields.
Our hypotheses are as follows:
- Consistent with earlier research, men will have a more positive attitude towards computers than women.
- Women will report higher levels of computer-related stress than men.
- Where will be no difference in the levels of stress and anxiety reported by women and men with the same level of computer experience.
- Students who report low levels of stress and anxiety will hold stronger beliefs about their ability to use acomputer than those with high levels of stress and anxiety.
- There will be fewer women enrolled in computer-related fields than men.
- Women enrolled in computer-related fields will report less anxiety towards the computer than women enrolled in non-computer-related fields.
Student volunteers from the introductory psychology subject pool and from introductory, intermediate, and advanced computer
science courses will be selected. The students will be administered the following questionnaires: The Computer Attitude Scale
(Nickell and Pinto, 1996), and the Efficacy Expectations subscale of the Computer Aversion Scale (Meier, 1988).
This study is important because students need to be encouraged to view the computer as a useful tool, especially since it
continues to play an important role in the work place. If recorded differences are observed between the two genders, school
programs may have to address these issues among students. As further research, it would be important to know how many
seniors at the time of completion retain negative attitudes towards computers. The ratio of female seniors who feel incompetent
and would avoid using a computer must also be knownn in order to overcome this negative attitude since the computer
continues to become more important in our lives.
No Support for the Cross-Gender Hypothesis of Homosexuality
Sandra Hoy
Lock Haven University
The cross-gender hypothesis of homosexuality was investigated. A total of 230 subjects selected questions to ask a
homosexual or heterosexual applicant in an interview and rated the masculinity and femininity of the applicant for a
gender-typed or a gender-neutral job. Only 43% of the subjects in the homosexual resume condition correctly reported the
applicant's sexual orientation on a later questionnaire, however, 82% of the subjects in the heterosexual resume condition
correctly reported the applicant's sexual orientation. Results indicte that, overall, subjects did not respond differently to
homosexual and heterosexual applicants based on the question-selection patterns and femininity and masculinity ratings,
contradicting results of previous studies. The hypothesis stating that homosexual applicants would be asked more negative
questions thatn heterosexual applicants in an interview was not supported. Furthermore, no substantial evidence was found to
support the cross-gender hypothesis of homosexuality. These results may indicate changing attitudes toward homosexuals.
However, the discrepancy in recalling and addigning an applicant's sexual orientation indicates that differences do exist.
Therefore, it is believed that the subjects did not want to appear prejudiced. In fact, several comments were made to the
experimenter that the sexual orientation was irrelevant to the job performance. In spite of the lack of results in the present
study, further research needs to establish new ways to access attitudes toward homosexuals to determine whether or not
attitudes have changed.
The Development of a Semantic Differential Scale to Measure Stigma
Crystal Hardy
Binghamton University
Stigmatized individuals are often isolated, stereotyped and victims of prejudice in our society. Previous studies often did not
differentiate between attitudes and behaviors towards the stigmatized. They also failed to distinguish actual vs reported
behavior. We are attempting to develop a standard scale which can be used to measure stigma. The scale includes items
which vary along two dimentions: type of relationship and depth of contact. With this scale we hope to establish the
relationship between the actual and reported behavior of our participants.
Too Much Too Soon: The Problem of Teenage Pregnancy and Some Possible Soutions
Trecia Matthews
Binghamton University
One of the major problems that continues to affect the United States today is teenage pregnancy. Teen pregnancy had
drastically increased over the years. One of every twenty teenaged girls between the ages of 15 and 19 give birth each year,
totaling 1 million pregnant teens. A cross national study indicates that the United States had the highest rates of teen pregnancy,
births, and abortion among six industrialized nations in 1981 (Jones et al., 1985). Suzanne Fields (1996) reported that the
teenage birthrate in the United States declined for two years in 1993 and 1994. This decrease in birthrate only affected teens
17 to 19 years old. Children born to teens younger than 17 years old have increased. It has been estimated that the number of
teenage pregnancy among girls aged 14 to 17 will increase by more than a million in the next 10 years (Jones et al., 1985).
Furthermore, racial differences exist in both the prevalence of teen pregnancy and teen parenting.
Teenage pregnancy is especially known to be a problem among blacks, since a disproportionately higher number of them
become parents than their Hispanic and white counterparts (Ladner, 1987). Black teenagers represent up only 14 percent of
the adolescent population yet account for 28 percent for all births to unmarried teenagers. The fact that teenagers are more
sexually experienced, accounts for the higher pregnancy rate among Black teens. Not only are Blacks are less likely than
whites and Hispanics to use contraceptives, but they are also less likely to use them effectively (East & Felice, 1996). Among
black teen parents, most of whom are poor, economic conditions offer the best explanation for the increase in teen pregnancy.
Considering all the factors that contribute to the high incidence of teenage pregnancy, this paper will focus primarily on the
factors that lead teen mothers to get pregnant. Two teen mothers and one teen father participated in an interview where they
freely expressed their experiences of pregnancy and parenting. Based on their lack of knowledge, the mothers and father
candidates expressed similar views about sex and reproduction which contributed to teenage parenting. Misconceptions about
the use of contraceptives, as well as barriers to contraception contributed to their situation. Parents knowledge of sex
education plays a great role in how their teenage child will be educated. I will also examine other factors that contribute to teen
pregnancy. I will illustrate the importance of prenatal and postnatal care. I will explore the improtance of social support for
young mothers and fathers in rearing their child. Finally, an evaluation will be made on the impact children have on young
parents.
Comparison of Mission-Specific and Generic Developmental Items Defining the College Experience
Aimee Zakrzewski and Thomas P. Hogan
University of Scranton
Assessment of developmental outcomes in higher education is supposed to reflect specific institutional missions. Do mission
specific outcomes represent separate dimenions when compared with more generic developmental outcomes? We compare
reactions of a group of 597 seniors and a group of 153 alumni to mission-specific items separate themselves from the more
generic items, although there are some clear exceptions to this pattern.
Heat And Cold Stressors Do And Do Not Produce Analgesia That Is And Is Not Blocked By Naloxone Or Mk-801 In The Land Snail, Helix Aspersa
Mahometa, M.J., Quinn, J. J., Osmanski, M. S., and Cannon J. T.
University of Scranton
Recently, Kavaliers and colleagues have demonstrated the utility of examining the nocifensive foot-lift response to contact heating of the entire foot in the land snail. For example, they demonstrated that cold and hot environments can produce elevated foot-lift latencies (stress-induced analgesia). Heat appears to produce an opioid form of analgesia that is diminished by naloxone, whereas, the analgesia produced by cold is not affected by naloxone. The present research sought to extend these naloxone findings to the "snail-flick" response to focal radiant heating of the foot. In addition, we sought to determine whether the naloxone-insensitive form of analgesia (non-opioid) would be diminished by the NMDA antagonist MK-801, which has been found to have such an effect in rats.
Behavioral testing involved a 6 baseline and 16 post-baseline flicks (2 min inter-flick interval). Animals received injections of either naloxone (1 ug/2 ul), MK-801 (.14 ug/2 ul), or saline (2 ul) immediately after baseline. Subsequently, animals were placed in either hot (38o C), cold (8o C), or ambient (22o C) environments for 15 min. They were then allowed to hydrate for 15 min at room temperature prior to post-baseline testing.
Roughly half of the animals designated to participate in this study were run during the month of July, 1997 and the rest were run during the month of September. Independent analyses of these two data sets revealed striking differences in the pattern of effects observed.
In July, both hot and cold environments produced robust and significant levels of analgesia. Replicating Kavaliers, naloxone selectively blocked the analgesia associated with the hot environment, having no significant effect on cold-induced analgesia. Conversely, MK-801 selectively blocked the analgesia associated with the cold environment, having no significant effect on heat-induced analgesia.
In September, neither hot nor cold environments produced significant elevations of snail-flick latencies. Similarly, neither naloxone nor MK-801 had significant effects on flick latencies.
The reasons for this dramatic shift in behavior remain elusive.
Eclectic Integration in Teaching: Modified PSI, PI, and Lecture
Cannon, J. T., Quinn, J. J., and Baril, G. L.
University of Scranton
In his 1984 article, The Shame of American Education, B.F. Skinner asserted that "most current [educational] problems could be solved if students learned twice as much in the same time and with the same effort." Skinner believed that clear evidence had existed for some time that "teaching machines" generating programmed instructional materials offered such an advancement. Having been involved in generating programmed tutorials for the World Wide Web for some time (ref), we thought that this medium would perfectly lend itself to the development and distribution of programmed instructional materials. Before launching into this endeavor, we surveyed existing literature on programmed instruction (PI) and Keller's personalized system of instruction (PSI) as they compared to the effectiveness of traditional lecture. This review has revealed that although PI has some advantages over traditional lecture, PSI is the true standout (refs).
The basic elements of PI include: maximize reinforcement and minimize punishment (frustration), very precise educational objectives, achievement of the preceding by linear successive approximation, go at your own pace, active learner involvement through constant testing, immediate feedback on test performance, and progression based on mastery of material (refs.). The basic elements of PSI include: progression based on mastery of material with repeated testing until criterion performance is achieved on each module (often a text chapter), immediate feedback on test performance, go at your own pace, proctors (often undergraduates) administer tests, and proctors provide tutoring (which enhances the personal-social aspect of education).
Compared to traditional instruction, PI produces faster acquisition of material (17% less study time, not the halving that Skinner anticipated) and somewhat greater achievement scores (.28 effect size). Also compared to traditional instruction, PSI produces a substantial increase in achievement scores (.49 effect size) as well as student satisfaction (.68 effect size) (Refs from NS).
Buskist, Cush, and DeGrandpre (1991) analyzed existing PSI literature to identify those elements that are and are not linked to positive educational outcomes. They found that the necessary elements for academic achievement are the mastery requirement, immediate feedback, and having larger review tests (which was not a mandatory component of traditional PSI). Elements that are not clearly linked to academic achievement include student proctors as peer tutors, optional lectures, and self-pacing. It should be noted, however, that the use of tutors is positively related to student satisfaction. Since the above research indicates that several of the defining elements of PSI are not essential to its success, we propose that educators consider making selective use of those PSI elements that are.
Despite the clear superiority of PSI over traditional lecture, historically there has been some political resistance to converting courses to this format. In light of this, we recommend an eclectic approach which maintains the outward veneer of a traditional lecture while incorporating modified PSI as the core of the course with PI (and programmed tutorial) supplements. PI is used primarily for the teaching of foundational concepts and those concepts that have been repeatedly demonstrated to be difficult for students to master (ie., those instances in which "tireless" mentoring/testing are needed). Programmed Tutorials are used for the application of fundamental concepts to larger topics.
Active and Passive Elaboration at the Subordinate Level and Free and Superordinate Cued Recall in First Grade Children
Jennifer L. Meckes, Michael J. Mahometa, and James P. Buchanan
University of Scranton
Children learn natural categories in the order of basic (cookie), followed by superordinate (food), and finally the subordinate (oreo cookie) level. The age at which children can fully understand and use these three levels, especially the subordinate level, is still not well understood.
First-grade aged children were tested for superordinate cued recall for the names of 16 pictures of items shown either singularly (shark) or paired with another subordinate example from the same basic level category (fish: shark and goldfish). Two subordinate-paired conditions were employed: passive-paired elaboration in which the experimenter picked which of the items was to-be-remembered (TBR) and active-paired elaboration in which the children were asked to remember the item of the pair that they picked to answer a question (e.g. shark and goldfish, which would bite you?).
For cued superordinate recall, the combination of both seeing two subordinate examples of a basic category and having to actively think about how the two items differed in terms of the elaboration question proved significantly more effective in inducing first-grade aged children to encode and recall the TBR items at the subordinate level than just showing them two subordinate examples or a single example of the basic level concept.
Rape: An Evolutionary Perspective
J. Timothy Cannon and Jennifer J. Quinn
University of Scranton
In an extensive review of the literature, Thornhill and Thornhill (1987) provided a compelling case for the utility of an evolutionary approach to understanding human rape. The current presentation will highlight the major points of their article and will include an assessment of the relative predictive strengths of evolutionary, sociological/psychiatric, and feminist perspectives on the topic. Using both human and infrahuman examples, the presentation will also draw upon the research/writings of: E.O. Wilson (On Human Nature); David Buss (Evolution of Desire); Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson (Demonic Males); Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan (Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors); Robert Wright (The Moral Animal); and others.
Thornhill and Thornhill demonstrate how evolutionary theory can be used as a guide for directing a scientific examination of human rape in which testable predictions have been successfully verified. This stands in stark contrast to some currently fashionable, albeit politically correct, alternative views. These authors "have hypothesized that human rape is an evolved facultative behavior that is condition dependent in that it is employed by men who lack other viable reproductive alternatives." Overall, this presentation will attempt to demonstrate the utility of an evolutionary perspective in gaining an understanding of environmental variables that encourage rape and offer strategies to suppress this behavior.